DW Dance

1897-1967. American humanist psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasized individuality.

Gordon Willard Allport was one of the great personality theorists of the twentieth century. His work was a synthesis of individual personality traits and the traditional psychology of William James, which emphasized psychological traits that are common among humans. He also examined complex social interactions. As a humanistic
psychologist, he opposed both behavioral and psychoanalytical theories of psychology. Above all, Allport believed in the uniqueness of the individual. A prolific and gifted writer, he was the recipient of numerous professional awards.

Allport, born in 1897 in Montezuma, Indiana, was the youngest of four sons in the family of John Edwards and Nellie Edith (Wise) Allport. He was educated in Cleveland, Ohio, where the family moved when he was six years old. John Allport was a physician with a clinic in the family home and, as they were growing up, his sons assisted him in his practice. Gordon Allport’s mother, a former school teacher, maintained a home environment that emphasized religion and intellectual development. As a teenager, Allport ran his own printing business
and edited his high school newspaper. Following graduation in 1915, scholarships enabled him to join his brother Floyd at Harvard College.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

Psychologists help people cope with feelings of alienation by developing exercises or designing specific tasks to help the person become more engaged in society. For example, by identifying the alienated individual’s
true feelings, the psychologist may suggest a volunteer activity or a job change to bring the individual into contact with society in a way that has meaning for him or her.

Some have proposed treating the epidemic of alienation among America’s young people by fostering social solutions rather than individual solutions. One such social solution is the idea of communitarianism, a movement begun early in the 1990s by Amitai Etzioni, a sociology professor from George Washington University in Washington, D.C. Etzioni became a popular speaker and writer in the mid-1990s with the publication of his book, The Spirit of Community. Etzioni advocates a return to community values to replace the rampant alienation of contemporary culture, education to reinforce shared societal morals focusing on family values, and strictly enforcing
anti-crime measures. This movement has met serious criticism, however; civil libertarian groups are concerned about communitarian beliefs that certain rights can and should be restricted for the good of the community.

Further Reading
D’Antonio, Michael. “I or We.” Mother Jones (May-June 1994): 20+.
Foster, Hal. “Cult of Despair.” New York Times (30 December 1994): A3.
Guinness, Alma, ed. ABCs of the Human Mind. Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest Association, 1990.
Jackson, Richard. “Alone in the Crowd: Breaking the Isolation of Childhood.” School Library Journal (November 1995): 24.
Upton, Julia. “A Generation of Refugees.” The Catholic World (September-October 1995): 204+.
See also Loss and grief

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

In the 1840s, American writer and philosopher Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) observed that “the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. What is called resignation is confirmed desperation.”
Thoreau dealt with his own feelings of alienation by retreating to a solitary, simple life on the banks of Walden Pond in rural Massachusetts. He felt less isolated there—even though he lived in solitude—than when he lived in a town, surrounded by people. When living in town, his feelings of alienation confronted him daily, since his activities did not reflect his true feelings and desires.

Alienation is expressed differently by different people. Some become withdrawn and lethargic; others may react with hostility and violence; still others may become disoriented, rejecting traditional values and behavior by adopting an outlandish appearance and erratic behavior
patterns. As society undergoes rapid changes, and traditional values and behavioral standards are challenged, some people find little they can believe in and so have difficulty constructing a reality in which they can find a place for themselves. It is for this reason that social
and cultural beliefs play such an important role in bringing about or averting a feeling of alienation.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

Some sociologists observe that individuals become alienated when they perceive government, employment, or educational institutions as cold and impersonal, unresponsive to those who need their services. Entire groups may experience alienation—for example, ethnic minorities or residents of inner city neighborhoods who feel the opportunities and advantages of mainstream society are beyond their reach.

Feeling separated from society is not the only way a person experiences alienation: sometimes the individual feels alienation as disharmony with his or her true self. This condition develops when a person accepts societal expectations (to take over a family business, for example) that are counter to the person’s true goals, feelings, or desires (perhaps to be a teacher). He may appear to be successful in the role others expect him to assume, but his true wish is hidden, leaving him feeling deeply conflicted and alone.

In the workplace, jobs have become increasingly specialized since the 1700s and the Industrial Revolution. Workers may see little connection between the tasks they perform and the final product or service, and may thus feel intense loneliness while in the midst of a busy work environment.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

The state of being emotionally separated from others and from one’s own feelings.

Alienation is a powerful feeling of isolation and loneliness, and stems from a variety of causes. Alienation may occur in response to certain events or situations in society or in one’s personal life. Examples of
events that may lead to an individual’s feeling of alienation include the loss of a charismatic group leader, or the discovery that a person who served as a role model has serious shortcomings. Examples of personal events are a death in the family, a job change, divorce, or leaving home for the first time. Although most people may find that such occurrences trigger temporary feelings of disillusionment or loneliness, a small percentage will be unable to overcome these events, and will feel hopelessly adrift and alone.

Many sociologists have observed and commented upon an increase in this feeling of alienation among young people since the 1960s. They attribute this alienation to a variety of societal conditions: the rapid
changes in society during this period, the increase in alcohol and drug abuse, violence in the media, or the lack of communal values in the culture at large.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

Treatment modalities vary. Professionals frequently
employ a combination of modalities. Studies indicate
cognitive behavioral therapies improve self-control and
social skills. Behavioral and group therapy have also
proven effective. Self-help programs include Alcoholics
Anonymous, Smart Recovery, and Rational Recovery. In some cases medications designed to ease drug cravings or block the effects of alcohol are prescribed. To reduce cravings, even acupuncture is being tried. The managed care environment has contributed to a belief that treatment should occur in the least restrictive settings that provide safety and effectiveness. Treatment settings vary from hospitalization to partial hospital care to outpatient treatment to self-help groups.
See also Addiction/Addictive Personality; Self-help groups

Further Reading
Barlow, David H. and V. Mark Durand, eds. Abnormal Psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1995.
Knapp, Caroline. “My Passion for Liquor.” New Woman (August 1995): 80-83.
Noble, Ernest P. “Moderate Drinking Is Not for People in Recovery.” Addiction Letter (September 1995): 1-2.
Sheed,Wilfrid. “Down in the Valley.” Psychology Today (November 1995): 26-28.
Szpir, Michael. “Alcoholism, Personality, and Dopamine.” American Scientist (September 1995): 425-26.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

By fourth grade children tended to believe that use of alcohol led to positive outcomes, such as higher levels of acceptance and liking by peers and a good mood with positive feelings about oneself. Findings also indicate that 25% of fourth graders studied reported feeling at least some peer pressure to consume alcoholic beverages; this figure increased to 60% among seventh graders.

Dr. John Ewing developed a four-question test, known as the “CAGE” test, that therapists and the medical community frequently use as a first step to evaluate alcohol dependence and/or abuse. The test takes its name from a key word in each question: 1) Have you ever felt you should Cut down on your drinking? 2) Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? 3) Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about your drinking? And 4) Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover (Eye opener)? One yes suggests a possible alcohol problem.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

It is important to note, however, that the human body has no physical requirement for alcohol and that persons with a history of uncontrollable drinking should be very careful in experimenting with alcohol after having achieved a hard-won abstinence. Other factors to keep in mind are problems alcohol can cause to the fetuses of pregnant women, a condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).

Some researchers believe that children born with FAS are prone to learning disabilities, behavior problems, and cognitive deficits, although others feel the evidence is insufficient to establish a reliable link between these problems and FAS. Alcohol also has a negative effect on human organs, especially the liver, and a lifetime of drinking can cause terminal illnesses of the liver, stomach, and brain.

Finally, drunk driving is a tremendous problem in the United States, as are violent crimes committed by people who are under the influence of alcohol. Findings for alcohol expectancies among school-age children indicate increasingly positive alcohol expectancies across the grade levels.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

A number of researchers have studied children of alcoholics (COAs) and their counterparts, children of non-alcoholic parents (nonCOAs). These points summarize their findings:

COAs and non-COAs are most likely to differ in cognitive performance: scores on tests of abstract and conceptual reasoning and verbal skills were lower among children of alcoholic fathers than among children
of non-alcoholic fathers in one study (Ervin, Little, A research team (Johnson and Rolf) found that both COAs and mothers of COAs were found to underestimate the child’s abilities.

School records indicate that COAs are more likely to repeat grades, fail to graduate from high school, and require referral to the school psychologist than their non- COA classmates. (Miller and Jang; Knop and Teasdale) Researchers (West and Prinz) found that COAs exhibit behavior problems such as lying, stealing, fighting, truancy, and are often diagnosed as having conduct disorders.

Although it may be premature to suggest that a paradigm shift has occurred in the psychological community regarding alcohol dependence and abuse, many researchers do in fact believe that the disease model, requiring total, lifelong abstinence, no longer adequately addresses the wide variety of disorders related to excessive, harmful intake of alcohol.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

There is considerable debate as to the exact nature of alcoholism (the biological disease) and alcohol dependence and abuse (the psychological disorders). The disease model, which has been embraced by physicians and Alcoholics Anonymous for more than 50 years, is undergoing reexamination, particularly for its view that total abstinence is the only method for recovery. Many psychologists now believe that some victims of alcohol dependence and abuse can safely return to controlled drinking without plunging back into self-destructive binges.

Experiments have been conducted that indicate the consumption of a few drinks after a lengthy period of abstinence can lessen the resolve to remain totally abstinent, but that a devastating return to abusive drinking is not the inevitable result. In fact, some psychologists contend that the binge drinking that occurs after initially “falling off the wagon” is less a result of the return of alcohol to the body than to the feelings of uselessness and self-pity that typically accompany such a failure to keep a promise to oneself.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland