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The causes of substance abuse are multiple. Some people are at high risk for dependence due to genetic or physiological factors. Researchers have found the sons of alcoholics to be twice as prone to alcoholism as other people. Among pairs of identical twins, if one is an alcoholic, there is a 60 percent chance that the other will be also. In spite of an apparent inherited tendency toward alcoholism, the fact that the majority of people with alcoholic parents do not become alcoholics themselves demonstrates the influence of psychosocial factors, including personality factors and a variety of environmentalstressors, such as occupational or marital problems.

Variations in the incidence of alcoholism among different ethnic groups show that social learning also plays a role in addiction. Parental influence, especially in terms of modeling the use of alcohol and other drugs, has a strong influence on the behavior of children and adolescents, as does peer behavior.

Although positive experiences with one drug may lead to experimentation with another, the “stepping stone” theory of drug use— for example, using marijuana leads to the use of hard drugs—is highly speculative as the majority of marijuana smokers do not go on to use other drugs. Only heavy marijuana use has been linked to the use of other drugs.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

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When blood alcohol level reaches 0.1 percent, a person is considered to be intoxicated. Judgment and other rational processes are impaired, as well as motor coordination, speech, and vision. Alcohol abuse typically progresses through a series of stages from social drinking to chronic alcoholism. Danger signs that indicate the probable onset of a drinking problem include the frequent desire to drink, increased alcohol consumption, memory lapses (“blanks”), and morning drinking.

Among the most acute reactions to alcohol are four conditions re-ferred to as alcoholic psychoses: alcohol idiosyncratic intoxication (an acute reaction in persons with an abnormally low tolerance for alcohol); alcohol withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens); hallucinations; and Korsakoff’s psychosis, an irreversible brain disorder involving severe memory loss.

Aside from alcohol, other psychoactive substances most frequently associated with abuse and dependence are barbiturates (which, like alcohol, are depressants); narcotics (opium and its derivatives, including heroin); stimulants (amphetamines and cocaine); antianxiety drugs (tranquilizers such as Librium and Valium); and psychedelics and hallucinogens (marijuana, mescaline, psilocybin, LSD, and PCP). While drug abuse and dependence can occur at any age, they are most frequent inadolescence and early adulthood.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

When confronted, they generally deny that they have a problem, although privately they regret their addictive behavior, which in many cases they have tried without success to discontinue. They tend to rationalize engaging in the behavior and tell themselves they can stop whenever they want. They may also blame others for their addiction and often experience frequent and uncontrollable mood swings.

Substance abuse and dependence (substance-related disorders) are among the psychological disorders in the list of major clinical syndromes (Axis I) found in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Alcohol, which is classified as a depressant, is probably the most frequently abused psychoactive substance. Alcohol abuse and dependence affects over 20 million Americans— about 13 percent of the adult population.

An alcoholic has been defined as a person whose drinking impairs his or her life adjustment, affecting health, personal relationships, and/or work. Alcohol dependence, sometimes called alcoholism, is about five times more common in men than women, although alcohol abuse by women and by teenagers of both sexes is growing.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

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A wide spectrum of complex behaviors that ranges from patterns of behavior to physical addiction.

Addiction has come to refer to a wide and complex range of behaviors. In addition to familiar addictions, such as alcohol dependence, drug dependence, and smoking, addictive behavior has also been associated with food, exercise, work, and even relationships with others (codependency). Some experts describe the spectrum of behaviors designated as addictive in terms of five interrelated concepts: patterns, habits, compulsions, impulse control disorders, and physical addiction.

Compulsions differ from patterns and habits in that they originate for the purpose of relieving anxiety. Impulse control disorders, such as overeating, constitute a specific type of compulsive behavior that provides short-term gratification but is harmful in the long run. In contrast to these various types of potentially addictive behavior, physical addiction involves dependence on a habit-forming substance characterized by tolerance and well-defined physiological withdrawal symptoms.

In spite of the variety of activities that can be considered addictive, people who engage in them tend to have certain attitudes and types of behavior in common. An addiction is generally associated with relieving anxiety or blocking out other types of uncomfortable feelings. To a greater or lesser extent, people engaged in addictive behavior tend to plan their lives around it; in extreme cases they will do almost anything to obtain the substance or engage in the behavior. The addiction makes them neglect other areas of their lives. They are commonly secretive about it, either out of shame or toprotect their access to a substance.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

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Behavior that enables an organism to function effectively in its environment.

Adaptation describes the process of change in organisms or species to accommodate to a particular environment, enabling their survival. Adaptation is crucial to the process of natural selection. Ethologists, scientists who study the behavior of animals in their natural habitats from an evolutionary perspective, have documented two main types of adaptive behavior. Some behaviors, known as “closed programs,” transmit from one generation to the next relatively unchanged. “Open genetic programs” involvegreater degrees of environmental influence.

Adaptation occurs in individual organisms as well as in species. Sensory adaptation consists of physical changes that occur in response to the presence or cessation of stimuli. Examples include the adjustment eyes make when going from broad daylight into a darkened room and the way bodies adjust to the temperature of cold water after an initial plunge. Once a steady level of stimulation (such as light, sound, or odor) is established, we no longer notice it. However, any abrupt changes requirefurther adaptation.

The adrenalin-produced reaction to environmental dangers called the “fight or flight” syndrome (including rapid breathing, increased heart rate, and sweating) can also be considered a form of adaptation. The psychological responses involved in classical and operant conditioning, which involve learned behaviors motivated by either positive reinforcement or fear of punishment,can also be considered adaptation.

Further Reading
Bateson, P.P.G. Perspectives in Ethology: Behavior and Evolution. New York: Vintage Books, 1993. Lorenz, Konrad. The Foundations of Ethology. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1981. Weiner, Jonathan. The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.

Taken from : The Gale Encyclopedia Of Psychology 2ND Edition - Bonnie Strickland

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